Close Relationships and Sexuality

Sexual motivation: conceptualization and meta-analysis of gender differences
Few areas of life are as universally relevant to (almost) all individuals past puberty as sexuality. People vary in their intrinsic motivation to seek sexual activity and satisfaction, typically referred to as sexual motivation or sex drive. Several recent projects have revolved around this concept. Previous research has varied in how it conceptualized sexual motivation. In one project, we offered a theory-driven conceptualization of the construct as a density distribution of state sexual motivation, where state sexual motivation is defined as momentary interest in sexual activity as manifested in sexual cognition, affect, and behavior (Frankenbach, Weber, Loschelder, Kilger, & Friese, 2022). Based on this conceptualization, we conducted a meta-analysis of gender differences in sexual motivation. Previous research has typically reported stronger sexual motivation in men compared to women (Baumeister et al., 2001), but some authors have argued that the respective reports may be of questionable validity due to biased responding by both genders (Conley et al., 2011). In our meta-analysis, we found a medium to large gender difference indicating stronger sexual motivation in men compared to women. When trying to control for biased responding by accounting for response bias on items that logically cannot show significant gender differences, the meta-analytic effect was medium in size.

Measuring sexual motivation
To elucidate the impact of sexual motivation on people's lives, researchers need a valid measure of the construct. Existing self-report measures of sexual motivation often lack a theoretical conceptualization, a comprehensive validation process, or both, compromising their validity and widespread use. Based on our theoretical conceptualization of sexual motivation (Frankenbach et al., 2022), we developed the Trait Sexual Motivation Scale (TSMS; Weber, Reis, & Friese, 2024). In four preregistered studies, we rigorously validated the TSMS in accordance with recommended practices for scale validation (Loevinger, 1957; Simms, 2008). Overall, the TSMS was found to be an economical, reliable, and valid measure of sexual motivation independent of gender and relationship status.

Sexual norms and sexual self-presentation
Sexuality is one of the most sensitive and private areas of life. People who are asked sexual questions may therefore be reluctant to give completely honest answers and instead tend to present themselves in ways that are particularly valued by others. Previous research has often suggested that the social norms underlying self-presentation tendencies follow a sexual double standard: that high levels of sexual activity are socially rewarded for men, but socially punished for women (Marks & Fraley, 2005). As a result, men have been expected to exaggerate their sexual experiences while women have been expected to understate theirs (Alexander & Fisher, 2003). However, empirical support for the sexual double standard and gendered self-presentation tendencies is scarce. In one project, we examined how people believe others will evaluate different levels of sexual activity for men and women. Across two samples and seven sexual outcomes, high sexual activity was judged more favorably for men than for women (replicating previous research), and the opposite was true for low sexual activity (extending previous research). Importantly, moderate (not extremely low or high) sexual activity was rated most favorably in both genders, suggesting that male and female sexual norms are equally characterized by similarities and differences (Weber & Friese, 2024). In another project, we examined sexual self-reports in online studies that do not require direct human interaction and thus may work against self-presentation. Using four different approaches to prevent, test, and control for self-presentation effects, we found little evidence that online reports of sexual motivation are fundamentally flawed. In particular, our results do not support the hypothesis that self-presentation is a major driver of gender differences in sexual motivation (Weber, Kilger, & Friese, unpublished manuscript).

Sexual motivation in everyday life
Although research on sexual motivation has become more and more popular, its characteristics and importance in the daily lives of young and healthy people are still poorly understood. To address this gap, we conducted an experience-sampling study to examine (a) characteristics ("How frequently do sexual events occur?"), (b) antecedents (e.g., self-control, partner presence), and (c) consequences (e.g., distraction, relationship quality) of sexual motivation in everyday life. Results suggest that sexual events are prevalent and frequent (e.g., several fantasies per day on average), that reported sexual motivation is higher when partners are present, and that higher levels of sexual motivation are associated with higher relationship quality (Weber, Frankenbach, Hofmann, & Friese, unpublished manuscript).